Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology 6 (2024) 315–337

Available online 25 July 2024
2590-1826/© 2024 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 This is an open access article
under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Review Article

Current status and performance evaluation of emerging advanced
remediation techniques for the removal of steroidal hormones in water

Ajibola A. Bayode a,b,*, Stephen Sunday Emmanuel c, Saheed O. Sanni d, Olamide A. Olalekan b,
Odunayo Timothy Ore e, Daniel Terlanga Koko b, Martins O. Omorogie b,f,g

a College of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University of Science and Engineering, Zigong 643000, China
b Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Redeemer’s University, P.M.B. 230, 232101 Ede, Nigeria
c Department of Industrial Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria
d Wastewater Treatment Research Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Chemistry, Vaal University of Technology, Vanderbijlpark 1911, Gauteng, South Africa
e Department of Chemistry, Obafemi Awolowo University, 220005 Ile-Ife, Nigeria
f Chair of Urban Water Systems Engineering, School of Engineering and Design, Technical University of Munich, Am Coulombwall 3, 85748 Garching, Germany
g Environmental Science and Technology Research Unit, African Centre of Excellence for Water and Environmental Research (ACEWATER), Redeemer’s University, P.M.
B. 230, Ede 232101, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O

Keywords:
Steroid hormones
Biogenic materials
Toxicity: Fate
Removal technologies

A B S T R A C T

Micropollutants such as steroid hormones contaminate water worldwide and cause significant damage. Waste-
water treatment plants (WWTPs) partially remove them, and they have low biodegradability leading to their
persistence in water bodies. They are endocrine disruptor compounds in aquatic organisms. Various environ-
mental conditions contribute to their persistence in the environment like soil pH, organic matter, soil conditions,
and temperature. The aquatic environment is most threatened even when present at very low concentrations. The
environment is exposed to steroid hormones from agricultural run-offs, pharmaceutical and industrial waste, and
veterinary medicine. Since most WWTPs partially remove contaminants, there is a need for new and improved
technologies for higher and more efficient removal of steroid hormones.
This paper discusses the fate and toxicity of steroid hormones in the aquatic environment. It further elucidates

the existing and emerging technologies in the treatment of steroid hormones in aquatic environments. Finally,
the conclusion of this review along with the current limitations and future research perspectives of hormones
present in the environment are elucidated.

1. Introduction

Freshwater is crucially applied for several activities in the household,
energy, and industrial sectors worldwide. However, the challenges of
wastewater generation from households, and industries into the
ecosystem, in addition to excessive usage of limited freshwater, have
drastically reduced the quality, and quantity of freshwater resources
available to the populace. In meeting up with the ever-increasing de-
mand for freshwater, that’s exacerbated by overpopulation, industrial-
ization, and environmental change[1,2]. Thus the production of
freshwater from wastewater, and wastewater recycling are the most
promising approaches that can solve the freshwater scarcity in society
[3,4,5,6,7]. This necessitates the implementation of strategies that can
aid in the generation of freshwater, therefore, it is pertinent to consider

exploring the potential of recycling steroid hormone (SH) wastewater
[8,9,10]. This endeavour is a promising avenue worth exploring.

Steroid hormones (SH) compounds emanate from different activities
comprising human excretion, livestock operations, hospital, medical
waste system, and industrial discharges [11,12,13,14,15] and are evi-
denced as major pollutants of the aquatic environment.SH compounds’
presence in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) at ng.L−1 concen-
tration range has adverse effects on both human health and wildlife,
thus requiring efficient removal of these hormones from wastewater,
before being discharged into the environment or applied for other ac-
tivities. These SH compound’s composition exhibits variance, in terms of
geographical location, lifestyle, and physicochemical attributes
[16,17,18]. Thus, methods and treatment implementations are not the
same. The recycling of SH compounds in wastewater is warranted, to

* Corresponding author at: Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Redeemer’s University, P.M.B. 230, 232101 Ede, Nigeria
E-mail address: bayodea@run.edu.ng (A.A. Bayode).

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology
journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/environmental-

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enceco.2024.07.006
Received 12 December 2023; Received in revised form 28 June 2024; Accepted 12 July 2024