____________________________________________________________________________________________
*Corresponding author: Email: oluwadare.omonijo@covenantuniversity.edu.ng;
British Journal of Education, Society &
Behavioural Science
4(6): 784-809, 2014
SCIENCEDOMAIN international
www.sciencedomain.org
Evaluation of Students Work-Study
Programme: The Case of a Private (Faith-
Based) Higher Education Institution,
South-West, Nigeria
Oludayo, Olumuyiwa Akinrole1, Omonijo, Dare Ojo2*
Uche, Onyekwere Chizaram Oliver3 and Nwadiafor, Kanayo Louis3
1Department of Business Management, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun-State, P.M.B. 1023, Ota,
South-West Nigeria, Nigeria.
2Department of Academic Affairs, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun-State, P.M.B. 1023, Ota,
South-West Nigeria, Nigeria
3Department of Religion and Human Relations, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P.M.B. 5025 Awka,
South-East Nigeria, Nigeria.
Authors’ contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration between all authors. Author OOA managed and
reviewed the literature searches, analyzed data for correctness and appropriateness
andproof read the first draft of the manuscript. The author ODO designed the study,
performed the statistical analysis; then, authors UOCO and NKL made the necessary
suggestions and corrections; hence, all authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Received 12th December 2013
Accepted 18th February 2014
Published 7th March 2014
ABSTRACT
This study adds to the body of knowledge on Students Work-Study Programme from the
Nigerian perspective. Relying on raw data of 72 Work-Study Students, who participated in
this prograrmme in the last two years, the study tries to investigate if Work-Study
Programme has a negative impact on students’ academic performance. Moreover, it finds
out the number of hours that students, who engaged in Work-Study spent on the
programme per week and the amount of money earned per hour. Furthermore, it attempts
to discover how students spent their salaries within this period. Drawing from information
gathered from the students in six Departments on this discourse, through questionnaires,
Original Research Article
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
785
the study reported 4 impacts of this Programme on students. Out of this figure, students,
who claimed to have gotten financial support for their studies and work experience for
future employment, top the list with 62.5% of the total sample. This was followed by
students, who claimed to have gained financial support for their academic programmes
and work experience for the future engagement alone, which represent 19.4% and 11.2%
respectively. Moreover, the study showed that 31.9% students engaged in Work-Study
Programme for 12 hours per week, while 43.1%, 13.9% and 11.1% other students spent
10, 8 and 7 hours per week on the programme respectively. Our findings equally revealed
that these students earned N250.00 per hour, out of which 51.4% of them fed themselves,
36.1% augmented their school fees and 13.7% deposited their salaries in savings account
for future use. The study found out and concluded that Work-Study Programme does not
have a negative impact on students’ academic performance.
Keyword: Work-study programme; students; higher education institution; work experience
and academic performance.
1. INTRODUCTION
Literature on education in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) suggests increasing demand by people
for tertiary education [1,2,3]. Evidence from past studies demonstrates its expediency in
order to combat high level of illiteracy that has hitherto earned SSA a status of the most
illiterate region worldwide [4]. The situation is pathetic in Nigeria, which is currently regarded
as having the worst education indicator across the globe [5]. Also Nigeria is the only E-9
country in SSA facing serious challenges in turning around the high rate of illiteracy among
its youths and adults by the 2015 timeline set to achieve Education For all (EFA) and the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) [4]. Out of the number of candidates applying for
admission every year, only about 5.2% to 15.3% get admitted, meaning that about 84.7% to
94.8% of the candidates seeking admissions every year never succeed in getting admission
(see Table i).
Table i. Demand and Supply of University Education in Nigeria 2000- 2007
Year No. of
Universities
Application Admission % Admitted Total
Unplaced
1998/1999
2002/2003
2003/2004
2004/2005
2005/2006
2006/2007
39
53
54
56
75
76
537,226
994,381
1,046,950
841,878
916,371
806,089
64,176
51,843
105,157
122,492
NA
123,626
11.9%
5.2%
10%
14.5%
-
15.3%
473,050
942,335
941,793
719,386
-
679,846
Source: [6]
Considering the usefulness of education among people, [7] compare sound education with
light that illuminates darkness. According to them, it brightens one’s sense of understanding,
reasoning and judgment. Thus, the more educated one is, the more he gets rid of ignorance
and subjectivity. Such an individual will likely conduct himself in a decent manner in the
society. The escalation of moral decadence among youths in recent times could be linked
with the insufficient access of youth to education. Also, poor quality of the nation’s education
system, which is breeding “area boys”, touts etc. is a contributing factor [8].
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
786
In the developed world, education among the youths is considered a priority, because it
ensures personal advancement in life [9,10,11] and utilization of natural endowments for
national development. The Elite in many developed societies seem to have gotten the
working knowledge of this idea many years back and that seems to have been the reason
they have been investing heavily in quality education that is paying off today. This is obvious
not only in the United States, Britain, Canada but also in Singapore, Finland, Israel, Japan
etc. However, poor access by people to education as evident in Sub-Sahara Africa, could
keep people in the poverty trap [12] and a nation backward perpetually.
The high rate of poverty in the region seems to be preventing poor people from accessing
education, because they may not be able to afford school fees. More often than not,
struggling parents withdraw their wards from schools before graduation. In other words,
many indigent students admitted into tertiary institutions usually find it difficult to cope
financially. For this reason among others, Work-Study Programme was introduced in the
institution under study. However, its impact assessment on students has never been
ascertained in the literature since its inception.
It is on this ground that this study is conceived. It adds to the existing scanty body of
knowledge on Students Work-Study Programme in Nigerian context. The study apart from its
academic value is expected to recommend ways of improving on this Programme so as to
assist other financially challenged students, who are yet to be benefited but also in dire need
of such a programme for advancement in life. Assisting students in this category could be of
immense value to Nigeria that is in dire need of progress (8).
1.1 Statement of the Problem
Articles related to Students Work-Study Programme have featured prominently in the
developed world, where the percentage of full time college students who work while in
school has increased steadily over the past three decades [13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,
23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45] but impact
assessment of Student Work-Study Programme in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) has not been
fully explored. This could be attributed to lack of capacity to accommodate such a
Programme within the region.
In Nigeria, a few of such studies have emerged in the public sector higher education.
Prominent among them is the “Student Librarian Work Study Programme in Academic
Libraries: An Appraisal” [46]. Through this study, authors noted that Work-Study Programme
made the following two significant impacts in the lives of students and staff in the University
of Ibadan.
It was of immense benefit to many poor students. “Many students who might have
withdrawn from the university, have maintained themselves through this program
and completed their studies” [46].
It assisted Library Department of the University of Ibadan in areas of staff shortage.
Nevertheless, the study failed to ascertain the number of hours that students engaged in per
week, salaries earned per hour and how they spent their salaries. Moreover, no attempt was
made in the study to investigate if Work-Study Programme has a negative effect on students’
academic performance. Besides these flaws, the study was conducted in a public sector
University and omitted private sector, where there is absolute lack of studies on Students
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
787
Work-Study Programme. The present article seeks to transcend the limit of the above study
by filling these gaps in knowledge.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
This study intends to add to the existing body of knowledge by updating the article of [46] on
Student Librarian Work-Study Programme in Academic Libraries: An Appraisal. Therefore, it
finds out:
Reasons why students involved in Work-Study Programme,
How much student earned per hour.
The number of hours spent on Work- Study Programme per week and
What students did with their salaries?
Whether Work-Study Programme has a negative impact on students’ academic
performance.
1.3 Hypothesis
Based on the submission of [19,47] that Work- Study Programme is beneficial to students, it
has been hypothesized in this study that:
Ho: Work-Study Programme does not have a negative effect on students’ academic
performance.
2. EXAMINATION OF RESEARCH ON ACCESS OF PEOPLE TO EDUCATION IN
NIGERIA
Access of people to education means free and unlimited opportunities at each level of
education to obtain knowledge, skills, and abilities available at that level which areneeded to
optimally participate and contribute to development in the society [48,49]. This view concurs
with the United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which asserts that everyone
has a right to education as noted by [50,51]. Therefore, access of people to education
provides a guarantee for those entitled to formal learning to receive it promptly. It connotes
the means of making education available to everybody in a country. Hence, lack of access of
humanity to education means failing to enroll in an educational institution; lack of
opportunities to attend school regularly; inability to complete the prescribed program of study
and lacks opportunities to transit to the next level of education [49].
This problem of insufficient demand for education seems to have been persisting since the
commencement of tertiary institution (University of Ibadan) in 1948, during the colonial
period. The problem became aggravated after independence, thus the establishment of the
second, third and fourth generations of Universities in 1977 and 1983 respectively [46]. In
spite of this and the creation of 34 private Universities in 2008 [52], there was no
improvement, which led to its increase to 114 approved Universities-36 Federal, 36 State–
Owned and 42 Private, in 2011 [53]. Currently, there are 128 approved Universities. In
addition to that there are 59 federal and state polytechnic colleges and 19 privately owned
polytechnics [54], yet no solution in view. The reason behind this acute problem is not far-
fetched. It is largely rooted in poor funding of tertiary education and neglect [55] by the
government. Since 1960, investment of the Nigerian government on education has fallen
short of its demand [56,57].
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
788
Therefore, there are at least 30,000 academic vacancies in Nigerian Universities, excluding
the nine new Federal Universities ‘established’ in April 2011 [53]. The money required for
establishing new Universities and their maintenance in the traditional style and other
development projects is often siphoned and embezzled by the elite in power [58,59,60,61].
The major implication is that many young Nigerians, who ought to have been educated in
other to advance in life and to ensure the development of Nigeria, have not been able to
access a higher education [62].
Ability to access education according to [63] is the extent to which people have unhindered
opportunities to acquire University education in a given society. In Nigeria this can be best
estimated from statistics of Gross and Net Enrolment Ratio (GNER). Enrolment rates as put
forward by [62] are the measures of educational access, which have the following two main
indicators:
Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER), which shows the total number of students enrolled at
a given level of education system, irrespective of age, divided by the population of
age group, which corresponds officially to that level.
Net Enrolment Ratio (NER), which is defined by the [64] as enrolment of the official
age-group for a given level of education expressed as a percentage of the
corresponding population.
[52] proceeds that higher education makes a room for high level human capital for economic
development and rapid societal transformation. In other words, the greater the opportunity
given to the citizenry for higher education, the more expansive the horizon for rapid social
and economic development [49]. This opportunity is located in Higher Education
Participation Rate (HEPR), which is defined as the proportion of 18-35 years age group that
is enrolled in tertiary education [52]. HEPR for selected 15 countries, including Nigeria is
indicated in the Fig. i and it confirms poor access of people to higher education in the
country.
Source: [52]
Fig. i. Higher education gap analysis: Nigeria versus top 15 economies
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789
2.1 Work-Study Programme: An Overview
2.1.1 Meaning of Work-Study programme
Work-Study Programme could be described as a part-time employment given to students
who are concurrently enrolled in institutions of learning with the aim of achieving a degree
[65]. Dwelling on this perspective, the job is interim in nature and is incidental to the pursuit
of an academic degree. The bone of contention here lies in the scope of this view, which is
limited to earning a degree. Hence, other important usefulness of Work-Study was
conspicuously omitted. Work-related experiences are parts of this usefulness, which cannot
be easily ignored in the literature. Students may gain valuable experience through the work-
study Programme that might enhance their future opportunities in the labour market. [66]is in
support of this view, he sees students’ work-study as a way to explore career options and
earn an insight into the working world. [66] advances that, working experience, which
student may get from work-study can forms their identity that may enhance their confidence
in work settings in the nearest future. Therefore, [67] sees work study as a Programme put in
place to assist students in appreciating the dignity of labour, bestow on students work
experience for future reference and engagement, help them in earning income to meet their
immediate financial needs. Although the view of Covenant University is very comprehensive,
it ignores financier of the Work-Study Programme. [18] attempt to fill this gap in knowledge
by viewing Work Study as a form of financial aid, funded by the federal government, which
helps students meet educationally related expenses by paying hourly wages for part-time
employment. This is obtainable in developed societies, where government is highly
responsible to her citizen. In Nigeria, such Programme is being funded by Faith-Based
institutions.
2.1.2 Work-Study Programme in the United States of America
Work-Study in America is often regarded as Federal Work-Study (FWS). It is a form of
financial aid awarded to students who demonstrate financial need and meet certain eligibility
requirements [68]. Historically, working through college has been part of the college
experience for much of American history. A 1937 study at Columbia University, conducted
by [103], show that 65% of B.sc and graduate college students in the 1920s-30s held jobs
ranging from selling Fuller brushes, magazine subscriptions, shoveling coal, childcare and
more. However, information concerning college students became more widespread in the
1960s, and shows the continual increase in the percentage of students working. Since
1960s, studies have shown that the number of college students working off-campus has
continued to increase (see Fig. ii) as students are faced with decreasing financial aid, rising
costs of education, greater personal financial commitments, and the need to secure
employment upon graduation [69,70,71].
Further, past studies indicate that 80% of American undergraduates in 1999-2000 worked
while attending college [20]. This represents 8% increase over the figure recorded less than
ten years ago, among whom 72% worked [72]. In the light of the above, it could be deduced
that Work-Study Programme has been in existence in America long ago with attendant
impacts in the lives of indigent students. There are two different kinds of work-study: Federal
Work-Study and non-Federal Work-Study in the US.
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
790
Source: Adapted from [73]
Fig. ii. Percentage of College Student Working, 1961-2000
2.1.3 Operationalization of Work-Study Programme in America
In higher institutions of learning in America, before any student could participate in Work-
Study Programme, he or she must demonstrate financial need. Thus financial incapability is
a major prerequisite. This is an indication that American nation cares for her less-privileged
unlike underdeveloped societies. Besides being poor, students wanting to participate in
work-study must qualify for it and scale through the process of selection.
2.1.3.1 Eligibility
For a student to be eligible, he or she must submit the application for Federal Student Aid
(FAFSA), which is usually free. Moreover, other supporting documents as may be stipulated
by the student’s institution may equally determine his or her eligibility for FWS. All questions
on the form must be filed with honesty.
2.1.3.2 Participation
Having been selected for work-study, it is necessary to complete a new FAFSA each year
for continued consideration in the Federal Work-Study Programme. However, the money
students earn through this programme is not used to determine their financial needs.
Students’ total FWS award depends on their application date, level of need, and the funding
level of their schools. If funds are not available, such students may be put on a waiting list as
long as they are eligible.
2.1.3.3 Types of Work-Study Programmes
There are two major types of Work-Study Programmesin the US. These are:
Firstly, there is Federal Work-Study Programme, which is meant to address financial
needs of indigent students. Students undergoing this program are expected to work on-
campus and they can undertake tasks in their fields of study. Working on campus will
give you more flexibility than working at an off-campus job because on-campus
employers are usually more understanding of your class schedule and school work.
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791
Secondly, there is Non-Federal Work-Study Programme, which is not based on financial
need. More often than not, students, who are not qualified for the Federal Work-Study
enlist in Non-Federal Work-Study Programme. It involves working off campus for private
organizations. As with FWS, non-FWS encourages students to work in fields related to
their major of study. Most positions require specific skills and/or supervisor
recommendations. Non-FWS jobs can be found in dining services, campus library, major
departments, etc. At most schools, employment for non-Federal Work-Study is available
as funding allows. Students’ earnings will depend on where they work and the type of
work that they perform. Students’ earnings are also considered taxable income; and
unlike FWS, the money earned from non-FWS will be used to determine students’
financial need when filing the FAFSA. It is important to note that students must not
adhere to a specific award amount for non-FWS, the employers will allot work hours to
students in his employment as they see fit. When assigning hours, supervisors will
consider students class schedule and the needs of the employer.
2.1.3.4 Job positions
The Work-Study Programme encourages employment in community service and in fields
related to students major of study. Job positions can be either on-campus or off-campus.
Most off-campus positions will be at private nonprofit agencies or public agencies and will be
in the public interest. For most schools, once students accept the FWS award on notification,
he or she will be sent information regarding the steps he or she needs to take for securing a
FWS job. Generally, students will be interviewed for the position they applied for.
2.1.3.5 Earnings
At the very least, students are permitted to earn the current federal minimum wage, but that
amount may be higher depending on where they work and the type of work they perform.
For instance, if a student works off-campus, he may earn more money in order to cover
driving expenses.
2.1.3.6 Hours
The amount of money that students earn cannot exceed their total FWS award. When
assigning work hours, students’ employer will consider their total award and class schedule.
Average work schedules are from 10 to 15 hours a week. Students are advised to check with
their school to see what their limit is and how many hours they can work per week.
2.1.4 Work-Study Programme in Sub-Sahara Africa
Issues relating to students’ Work-Study have never been adequately addressed in the
literature in Sub-Sahara Africa. Several reasons could account for this gap, out of which the
underdevelopment of the region could be considered a prime factor. The region is
considered as the most backward in the comity of nations. The work of [74] titled: Global
Poverty: An Outrageous Raid in Sub-Sahara Africa” attest to high level of poverty in the
region. When poverty is very high in any society, it affects education and employment. The
government that cannot cater for her citizen may not be able to fund Work-Study
Programme. However, the programme exists in few institutions in the region [75], but being
funded mainly by Faith-Based Institutions.
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792
2.1.4.2 Students work-study in Nigeria
Work-Study Programme is not prominent in Nigeria like developed world; therefore literature
on it is very scanty. However, past studies show that it exists in the some of her public and
private Universities (2,109)
2.1.4.2.1 Work-Study Programme in Public Universities
Public Universities are being run in Nigeria by the Federal government. Quite unfortunately,
the nation’s government since 1960 has never considered Work-Study Programme
important for indigent students. This brings to bear the reason why the programme is not
common in the public tertiary education in the country, except Universities of Ibadan and
Ilorin. In these institutions, Work-Study Programme among other things was set up to help
students in obtaining income to meet their personal needs, and to convert brain drain
affecting the education sector in Nigeria to brain gain [46].
2.1.4.2.2 Work-Study Programme in Private Mission Universities
Work-Study Programme was created in the private Universities in Nigeria order to grant
opportunity to students to work on campus in the course of their studentship. However, the
programme is in existence in few private universities such as Covenant, Babcock, Madonna
and American University of Nigeria [76]. Since its inception in the private sector, Work-Study
Programme has not been explored in the literature. The present study therefore, adds to the
existing literature by trying to fill gaps in knowledge observed in (46) study on Work-Study
Programme.
2.1.4.2.1 Student Work-Study Programme in Covenant University.
The Work-Study Programme was established to enable Covenant University students work
during their studentship. Work-Study Programmein this institution is headed by a Chairman
as the head. It equally constitutes an advisory committee comprising of the Dean, Student
Affairs, Director, Academic Planning and University Bursar. Reports are submitted to the
Chairman via the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Administration). Six Departments have been able
to participate in this programme since inception (see Table iii). In this institution, Work-Study
Programme has the following three objectives:
To help students appreciate the dignity of labour.
To provide students with work experiences for future reference and engagement.
To assist students to earn income to meet their personal needs [67].
Going by the above, students’ Work-Study Programme in Covenant University is not limited
to indigent students as obtainable in developed societies. The programme is open to all
students in the institution based on the following criteria: performance in class, disciplinary
cases, and grades. However, more priority is given to volunteers, who will not be paid salary.
As a point of emphasis, indigent students are few in this institution, unlike public Universities
that have many poor students, who cannot pay their school fees. Even with that, the few
ones, who are having financial challenge, are equally assisted through the programme.
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793
2.1.4.2.1.2 Operationalization of Work-Study Programme in Covenant University.
Participant students are issued letters of engagement after they might have succeeded in
interviews and consideration of budgetary provisions. The letter is meant for identification on
campus and future reference.
Duties and work schedules of students are provided by the Head of Departments. The
schedule is drawn in such a way that it does not interfere with students lecture time table or
any other statutory activities on campus. Work-Study Programme normally kicks up a week
into each semester and terminates a week before the commencement of semester
examination. Meetings are held with Work-Study Students by their two officers, male and
female-The Student Union, who oversee the programme and send progress report through
the secretary to the Chairman of the programme. In order not to affect the academic
performances of the students, the maximum number of hours for every participating student
is 10 hours per week.
A sum of two hundred and fifty naira (N250.00) is paid per hour of verified work. A
Department may pay on commission basis, but not less than the stipulated amount. The
Bursary Department coordinates the payment. Students are expected to exhibit a high sense
of discipline in the discharge of their responsibilities. Reporting time and attendance are
strictly adhered to. Attendance register is kept and signed under the supervision of the
reporting officer.
Each participant is expected to undertake an orientation programme in the department,
where he or she works before commencing on Work-Study Programme. The performance of
students under Work-Study Programme evaluated and appraised every semester before any
further engagement. Also, academic performances of students involved are evaluated per
semester. Any student on the program, who falls below the expected CGPA is excused from
the programme.
Graduating students on Work-Study Programme are issued Work-Study Certificates prior
graduation [67].
2.2 Implications of Poor Funding of Education in Nigeria
No nation worldwide ever rises above her investment in education [77]. A society, which
invests poorly on education, may remain underdeveloped while the society that invests
heavily on education may attain development at a rapid rate (see Fig. iii).
Literature shows the reality of the above in the United States of America (USA), United
Kingdom (UK), Canada, Finland etc, [79]. Past studies equally attest to this in the first
generation of newly industrialized societies of the World, which includes: Japan, Hong Kong,
Singapore, Taiwan and South Korea and the late developers like China, Thailand, Malaysia
and Indonesia [8].
Dwelling on the above, the continuous underdevelopment of Nigeria and Sub-Sahara Africa
would never be a surprise to any logic thinkers. The region apart from Ghana that is
regarded as the best country in Africa in terms of United Nations recommended budgetary
allocation to education [57], is noted for poor investment in quality education [5,77]. The
problem is worse in Nigeria that has 8.45 percent budget on education as against 31 per
cent in Ghana as indicated in Table ii, but many Nigerian elite are notorious in embezzling
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
794
and squandering the resources of the state [80,81,82,83,84,85,87] more than any continent
worldwide [67].
Source: [78]
Fig. iii. Cost Per Student of Public Education as a Percentage of GNP Per Capita
Table ii. Some Selected Countries Annual Budgetary Allocation on Education
S/N Country % Budget Allocation to
Education
Position
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Ghana
Cote d’ Ivore
Uganda
Morocco
South Africa
Swaziland
Mexico
Kenya
United Arab Emirate
Botswana
Iran
USA
Tunisia
Lesotho
Burkina Faso
Norway
Colombia
Nicaragua
India
Nigeria
31.0
30.0
27.0
26.4
25.8
24.6
24.3
23.0
22.5
19.0
17.7
17.1
17.0
17.0
16.8
16.2
15.6
15.0
12.7
8.4
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th
13th
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th(Last)
Source: [88]
In the language of [89], the litany of woes of leadership-corruption in Nigeria is endless,
which corroborates the findings of the leading anti-corruption International Non-
Governmental Organization, Transparency International (T.I). Since 1995, the body has
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
795
constantly featured Nigeria in its Annual Corruption Perception Index (ACPI) [61]. Apart from
several times, which the body had rated Nigeria as the 2nd, 3rd and 4th most corrupt nations
worldwide, the body specifically rated Nigeria as the most corrupt nation in 1998 and 2000
[61]. In recent times, the situation has not greatly improved as the nation was rated 143
corrupt nations out of 182 in the world [90]. However, Sociological implications of poor
funding in quality education in Nigeria could be perceived in the following two ways:
Firstly, it may prolong high rate of abject poverty prevailing in Nigeria. According to [91,92]
poverty has risen in Nigeria, with almost 100 million people living on less than a $1 (£0.63)
daily, which corroborates past studies on Nigeria having the third largest number of poor
people worldwide, after China and India [93,94]. Over one-third of Nigerians live in extreme
poverty-those who cannot afford 2900 calories per day [95]. This is reflected in the Nation’s
Human Development Index (HDI) of (0.448), giving the country a ranking of 159th out of 177th
countries [95]. Disaggregated figures highlight the various dimensions of poverty: 1 in 5
children die before the age of 5; 3 million persons are HIV/AIDS victims; and 7 million
children are not attending school [62]. The work of Igbuzor cited by [95] indicates the Gini
index for Nigeria at 50.6. Comparing this with India (37.8), Jamaica (37.9), Mauritania (37.3)
and Rwanda (28.9), Nigeria’s case is precarious and it confirms the view of [91,92]. The
above situation prevails in Nigeria because quite a lot of persons do not have access to
education, which guarantees skills development and preparation for the world of work [99].
Skill development is essential in life because it enables one to earn a living in work
organizations or personal businesses in order to cater for one’s household, but when many
people do not have access to education that ensures that, there is tendency for poverty to be
on the increase. A poverty ridden society experiences rising rates of illiteracy as a result of
the increasing number of school drop outs and declining school enrollment, engendered by
the inability of parents to afford the cost of training their children [96].
Secondly, it may elongate underdevelopment status of Nigeria for a very long time.
Although, Nigeria is blessed with abundant natural resources like bauxites, gold, tin, coal, oil,
tin, forest, water land, etc. Moreover, the nation has the largest mangrove forest in Africa
and third in the world, covering a total of 1.000 km2 along the West Atlantic Coast of Africa
[97] but Nigeria is one of the most backward societies in the world [2]. This is an indication
that natural resources do not guarantee advancement of any nation. Development in all
ramifications could only be secured through the selflessness and commitment of human
capital assets, who will manipulate forces of nature for the benefit of mankind. Reasoning in
this direction brings to bear the advancement of countries like Israel, Singapore, Japanetc
without being rich in natural resources, as common to Nigeria and other African countries.
Development is described as an endless improvement in the capacity of man and society to
control and manipulate the forces of nature as well as themselves, other persons and society
to their benefits [98]. Man’s endless improvements in capacity are only guaranteed through
sound education. Nigeria’s incapability to obtain “technical know-how” to translate its
enormous oil wealth, a large and diverse population, sea and river access, forests and land
into sustainable, peaceful development [99] has its root in poor education. It is a pointer to
the fact that Nigeria is “un-developing”, developing in a wrong direction [94]. The most
insulting aspect is her inability to build refineries to refine her abundant crude oil for the
benefit of the suffering masses. In spite of being the world’s 13th largest oil producer, and the
6th largest in OPEC [99], Nigeria imports refined products for home consumption at a higher
price, which could be regarded as a paradox and an insult to knowledge!
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
796
Although, (98) sees development as an endless process, but it has to do with gradual growth
(100) in culture, economy, politics, education, hygiene etc in achieving this end. Of all these
factors, however, education plays a prominent role, because the success of others factors is
anchored on it. Therefore, education is largely needed to acquire skills and technologies
required to control natural resources for the betterment of humanity. In other words, it aims
at producing people equipped with the skills and knowledge necessary for the realization of
‘national development’ and nation-building” [66]. It is an important vehicle for bringing about
development and change in modern society but when education can’t be accessed by the
majority of the citizens in any given society, the development of such a nation may likely
become impossible.
2.3 Theoretical Insights
Dwelling on [7], happenings, events, habits and attitudes of people in the society are
explained using different paradigms. The Sociological understanding of this effort is to
establish social life realities on an issue of concern under discussion. This would be
employed in this article against the backdrop of the ‘Involvement Theory’.
The paradigm is largely rooted in the work of [101] and it serves as the basis for assessing
graduate perspectives of how time spent at work on campus impacted students’ academic
activities. [101] advances that the quantity and quality of time students spent in the work
environment directly affected student learning and development. Reasoning along with [101],
it could be observed that if students involve in jobs and skills that take most of their time, it
may affect their academic performances. Nevertheless, it could be observed that[101] fails to
emphasize the difference between on-campus and off campus work and how the two affect
students’ performances and development.
Past studies show that students work both on-campus and off-campus [102,103] but with
different impacts on students’ academic activities, which could be positive or negative.
Positively, literatures confirm that on-campus jobs provide increased opportunity for student
engagement [104,105], development of social relationships [106,107] and teaches students
transferable work skills [108]. While on the negative aspect, [109] examines how off-campus
work affects students. According to him, students may likely have a difficult time with the
balance between a life away from campus and being engaged on campus. They spent more
time traveling to and from work and more likely to give up other activities in order to meet off-
campus work commitments. Although [104] believe that college students may obtain
different abilities and social experiences from off-campus work, but such students have
many challenges to cope with combining work with academic pursuit However, both on-
campus and off-campus jobs are prominent in developed nations, where workers are being
paid per hour, but on-campus work could be much better for students than off-campus. This
is because students, who engaged in on-campus jobs work in their respective institutions of
learning, receive their lectures there as well as pay.
In Nigeria, on-campus work is just emerging in Faith-Based Universities, while off-campus
jobs are common in the public sector education. It is commonly regarded as part-time
studies in an institution like Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, South-East Nigeria. Students
who engage in part time program in this University come from their various places of
permanent employment to campus to receive lectures and write their examinations in the
afternoon, between 2 and 6 pm every day. In other public Universities, students, who
engage in part time studies, come for lectures on weekends (Friday and Saturday). Such
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
797
students pay higher school fees than regular students and they equally spend more time on
their course of study than regular students.
For the purpose of this study, our attention is focused on on-campus work. In-spite of its
numerous advantages, it could equally affect students’ academic performance. However,
this depends on students’ hours of work engagement. In a study of [103], it was discovered
that 55 percent of students who worked for 35 hours or more per week reported that work
has a negative effect on their studies. Another set of students reported the following
liabilities: 40 percent report that work limits their class schedule; 36 percent report it reduces
their class choices; 30 percent report it limits the number of classes they take; and 26
percent report it limits access to the library [103]. Students in this category may likely drop
out of school and fail to receive a college degree.
Based on the foregoing, it could be observed that student Intelligent Quotient (IQ) could
determine the number of hours that students spend on work-study and succeed. Past
studies in area of educational psychology confirm that I.Q is the major determinant of school
achievement [110]. As a result, if a genius student is working for 30 hours per week, he may
likely come out with a higher grade than an average student who combines his or her
academic pursuit with the same hours. The genius may even perform better than other
students who did not engage in Work-Study Programme. This is because, students’
capacities to cope with work and academic endeavours are different. Therefore, a moderate
amount of nonacademic work is considered to be helpful to academic achievement when
compared to heavy or no employment [111].
This article intends to confirm the existing theoretical explanation of [101] on whether Work-
Study Programme has a negative impact on students in the University under study.
3. METHODS
3.1 Research Design
This study employs ex-posit descriptive design because it covers the event (Work-Study
Programme) that was carried out between 2011 and 2013 in the institution under study.
3.2 Population of Study and Sample Size
The population of this study consists of 72 students, who took part in this discourse in the
last two years, in the institution under study (see Table iii). The table contains names of
students approved for this programme by the University Management between 2011 and
2013 and it was obtained from the Co-coordinator of Work-Study Programme. Out of the
above figure, Empowerment and Research Development had the largest participants-29.3%.
Next in the hierarchy were Departments of System and Information (SI) and Student Affairs
with 20.8% each. Department of Entrepreneurial Development (ED) had 12.5% while Library
and Works Departments (WD) had the least participants- 8.3% each.
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
798
Table iii. Departments, frequency and percentage of students who participated in
work-study programme
S/n Departments of Students Who Engaged in Work-Study Program. F %
1
2
3
4
5
6
Empowerment and Research Development (ERD)
System and Information (SI)
Student Affairs (SA)
Entrepreneurial Development (ED)
Library
Works
21
15
15
09
06
06
29.3
20.8
20.8
12.5
8.3
8.3
Total 72 100
Source: Field survey data 2014
Moreover, these students were selected as sample size for this study.
3.3 Sampling Techniques
A purposeful sampling technique was employed to select respondents from the six
Departments mentioned in Table iii. They are students who participated in the Work-Study
Programme within this period. Therefore, they were given questionnaires to fill for the study.
Researchers distributed these questionnaires to the respondents and collected the same
back between October and November, 2013 without the help of any research assistant. This
is because it was very easy for the four authors to manage the situation effectively.
3.4 Research Instrument
Questionnaire was used to collect information for the study. The questionnaire aspect
contains nine questions. Eight of them were open ended questions. It permitted respondents
to express their views clearly on issues being examined while one was a closed ended type.
Three options were given to students and they were asked to pick the best option applicable
to them.
3.5 Data Validity and Reliability
Being a descriptive article, raw data retrieved from the University under study and students
who actually took part in Work-Study Programme in the last two years was used for this
study. Although the figure is small but it is more valid and reliable than information obtained
from non-participant, which may not reflect the reality of issue under study. In the context of
issue under discussion, the data has robust contextual validity; and in terms of the actual
sample, the study has substantive ecological validity and is highly dependable for use in a
research of this nature.
3.6 Data Analysis and Statistical Test
This study employs simple percentage to analysis data collected while the chi-square (X2)
statistical tool was used to test the only hypothesis formulated, at 0.01 level of significance,
using 2 as degree of freedom.
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
799
4. RESULT
Examination of the result in Table iv shows 4 reasons why students engaged in Work-Study
Programme. Out of this, 45 students who mentioned opportunity to secure work experience
for future engagement and financial support for the completion of their academic
programmes on campus tops the list with 62.5% of the total sample. This is followed by
those who mentioned financial support only for the completion of their programmes, which
represents 19.4%. Students who mentioned work experience for future employment only
constitute 11.2% while those who mentioned to keep them busy on campus represent 6.9%
Investigations into the study’s research questions reveal the following results:
Table iv. Reasons why students involved in work-study programme
S/n Reasons Why Students Engaged in Work-Study Programme. F %
1
2
3
4
Work experience and financial support
Financial support only
Work experience only
To keep students busy
45
14
08
05
62.5
19.4
11.2
6.9
Total 72 100
Source: Field survey data 2014
Data in Table v shows that each of the students who engaged in Work-Study Programme
earned N250.00 per hour. The table equally indicates that greater proportion of the sample,
31.9% worked for 12 hours per week. Such students earned N3, 000.00 per week. This is
followed by 43.1% who engaged in Work-Study Programme for ten hours per week, resulting
in N2, 500.00. 13.9% worked for 8 hours per week within this period and earned N2, 000.00.
Lastly on this table, 11.1% worked for 7 hours per week and earned N1, 750. 00.
Table v. The number of hours student spent on work-Study Programme Per Week and
salary earned per hour
SN Hours Per Week F % Salary
Per Hour
Total Amount
Per Week
1
2
3
4
12
10
8
7
23
31
10
08
31.9
43.1
13.9
11.1
250
250
250
250
3, 000.00
2, 500. 00
2, 000. 00
1, 750. 00
Total 37 72 100 250 9, 250.00
Source: Field survey data 2014
Table vi shows descriptive statistics on how students on Work-Study Programme spent their
salaries. There were 51.4% of the total sample that spent their salaries on feeding on
campus, 36.1% said they used their salaries to augment their school fees while 13.7% of
them, which is the least opened savings account to enable them, keep their money for future
use.
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
800
Table vi. How Students on Work-Study Programme Spent their Salaries?
S/n How Work- Study Students Spent their Salaries F %
1
2
3
Feeding
To augment my school fees
Safe-keeping
37
26
10
51.4
36.1
31.7
Total 72 100
Source: Field survey data 2014
4.1 Statistical Test of Hypothesis
The hypothesis formulated in this study was tested, using chi-square @ 0.01 level of sig. as
indicated below:
Table vii presents the result of the hypothesis formulated to investigate if Work-Study
Programme has a negative implication on students’ academic performance. The result
shows that Work-Study Programme does not have a negative impact on students’ academic
performance, X2(72) = 9.2, at p< 0.01 level of significance. In other words, the X2 calculated
value-21.4 is greater than X2 tabulated value-9.2. Thus, the hypothesis that says Work-Study
Programme does not affect students’ academic performance is upheld.
Table vii. Descriptive statistics on whether work-study programme has a negative
effect on students’ academic performance
S/n Respondents’ Responses fo fe fo-fe (fo-fe)2
1
2
3
Agree
Disagree
Undecided
35
27
10
37
45
62
2
18
-52
4
324
2704
Σ 72 Σ142 Σ 3032
Source: Field survey data 2014p < 0.01
Chi-square calculated (X²cal) value= 21.4 and Chi-square tabulated (X²tab) value = 9.2
X2 = Σ(fo-fe)2
Σfe
Table viii. Cumulative grade point average (cgpa) of student-participants of work-
study programme
S/n Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) F %
1
2
3
4
Students under First Class Honours.
Students in Second Class Honours, Upper Division.
Students in Second Class Honours, Lower Division
Students in Third Class
08
29
35
0
11.1
40.3
48.6
00
Total 72 100
Source: Department of System and Information, 2014
The explanation of the findings is given in the following discuss.
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801
5. DISCUSSION
This study was carried out to examine the impact of Work-Study Programme on students in
a Private University, Western Nigeria in the last two years. It was discovered that Work-
Study Programme imparted on students in 4 ways. Prominent among them is work
experience for future reference and financial support for the completion of academic
programmes. Students in this category represent 62.5% of the total sample and 19.4% of the
sample claimed that the programme had helped them financially while 11.2% gave the
assurance of securing work experience in the course of Work-Study Programme (see Table
ii). This is an indication that the program has assisted students who would have dropped
from school due to financial problem it goes to corroborate [19] who submits that Work-Study
Programme is beneficial to students. Moreover, it could be deduced that Work-Study
Programme has instilled dignity of labour on these students. By this temporary work
experience, they may begin to know what it takes to get money, since this is the first time of
their engagement in paid work and it may likely help them to secure jobs in work
organizations after their studies. It is a known fact that these students would be rated better
than their mates, who never had any work related experiences prior to graduation. This
agrees with [112,113] who conclude that students who engage in several career related
work experiences while in school, including internships secure employment more quickly
after graduation than others, who lacked work-related experiences. These scholars equally
submit that such students are more likely to be employed within their field of study.
Furthermore, the study specifically sought to discover the number of hours each student
engaged in per day and salaries being paid to them. From Table iii, it is discovered that out
of 72 students who engaged in Work-Study Programme in the last two years, 31.9% of them
worked for 12 hours and 43.1% of them worked for 10 hours. The researchers equally
discovered that 13.9% others worked for 8 hours while the remaining 11.1% worked for 7
hours. Each of these students earned N250. 00 per hour. Deducing from the above, students
worked for 12 hours per week. This is similar to the number of hours granted to Work-Study
students in the United State, which is 10-15 hours per week (47). However, the amount paid
per hour, indicated above is far less than what US offers, which must not be less than the
federal minimum wage [65]
Moreover, the study equally found out how students spent their salaries within this period. It
was discovered that 51.4% spent their salaries on feeding on campus, 36.1% used their
salaries to augment incomplete school fees received from their parents while 13.7%
deposited their salaries in the bank for future use. It is very essential to say that students
who used their salaries for feeding has helped their parents to augment feeding and keep up
allowance. This would surely be a relief to their parents. Similarly, students who used their
salaries to augment the incomplete school fees received from their parents equally helped
their parents the agony of borrowing money to some extent while those who deposited their
money in the bank have started learning how to plan for the future. This seems to be
commendable because, it would make them responsible in future. Although the salary was
small, but these students may likely begin to know what it takes to earn money. The
discussion here corroborates [35], who submits that employment while enrolled provides the
means of addressing students’ financial concerns
Finally, the study investigated if Work-Study Programme has a negative impact on students’
academic performance. The findings show that the programme does not have any negative
impact on students’ academic performance. The result was validated by the Cumulative
Grade Points Average (CGPA) of the participants {see Table viii}. It shows that 11.1% of
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
802
them are very close to first class honours, 40.3% is in second class honours, upper division,
while 48.6% is in second class lower. Meanwhile there is none on the third class and pass
grades. Therefore, the findings support [35], who asserts that “Employment while in college
simply did not appear to affect students’ levels of academic achievement” and contradict [9],
who argued that nearly 50% of all full-time students are working enough hours to hinder their
academic experience, including grade performance, class schedule, and class choice.
6. CONCLUSION
Based on the above discussion, it is concluded that Work-Study Programme does not have
a negative impact on students’ academic programme. This was validated with students
result at the end of 2012/2013 academic year. None of them fell below second class lower
division. Moreover, it is concluded that Work-Study Programme has imparted on students in
the institution under study in the following ways:
It has enabled students involved acquire work experience for future reference. This
may likely give them an edge over their mates, who never had work experiences.
It gave these students, who would not have completed their courses of study due to
financial constraints an opportunity to finish up. Although the amount earned could
not adequately pay the school fees of any of these students, but it was used to
augment their parents’ contributions.
It has given all students on this programme opportunity of knowing the dignity of
labour. Most of them would now know what it takes to get money.
It has equally taught some of them how to save their money for future engagement.
This may likely make them responsible in life.
It gave some of these students opportunity of earning income to take care of their
financial needs such as feeding allowance.
However, another study is recommended to examine the statistical difference between male
and female participants of Work-Study Programme and their age range. Also, another study
is recommended to compare the academic performance of Work-Study students with their
counterparts who did not participate in the programme for effective analysis.
7. RECOMMENDATIONS
Owing to the above conclusion, the following recommendations are made:
Work-Study Programme should be extended to all tertiary institutions in Nigeria.
The programme should not be limited to administration alone. It should be extended
to lecturing. It could be a good avenue of exposing students endowed with scholarly
skills to lecturing at their tender age.
The school management should increase the salaries of Work-Study Students. It
might assist them further in catering for other crucial needs.
The nation’s government, at all levels should wake up to its responsibility in respect
of proper funding of education. If a private University could spent N23, 125.00 per
week on 72 students under a Work-Study Programme in order to impact on them,
without any help from the state, government could do better.
Year one students should be given opportunity to participate in Work-Study
Programme like other students.
British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 784-809, 2014
803
More priority should be given to every indigent student to participate in this
programme rather than volunteers, who are financially equipped to complete their
education.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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