Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design https://doi.org/10.1007/s41939-023-00341-y ORIG INAL PAPER Hybridization of aluminum–silicon alloy with boron carbide and ferrotitanium: impact on mechanical properties for automotive applications Oluwafemi Timothy Oladosu1 · Abayomi Adewale Akinwande2 ·Olanrewaju Seun Adesina1 · Olufemi Oluseun Sanyaolu1 · Babatunde Abiodun Obadele3 Received: 2 August 2023 / Accepted: 9 December 2023 © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 Abstract The present study investigated the influence of adding FeTi as supplementary reinforcement to B4C in an aluminum–silicon (Al-12Si) matrix for automobile applications. The FeTi alloy was introduced at 3, 6, and 9 wt.% alongside 5 wt.% B4C particles. The effects of such addition on the morphology, physical, and mechanical properties were examined. The X- ray diffraction pattern identified the presence of B4C and FeTi reinforcing phases alongside Al3Fe and Ti5Si3 phases. The examinedmorphology revealed that the particles were well dispersed in thematrix, with consequent effects on their properties. Porosity was reported to reduce linearly with rise in FeTi dosage, consequently resulting in a linear increase in density and relatively high overall density. Inclusive of the hardness, the yield and ultimate strength were enhanced progressively upon a progressive rise in FeTi dosage, with a contrary reduction in ductility. The result revealed that the inclusion of FeTi reinforcing fillers in the matrix is capable of ensuing appreciable improvement in the mechanical properties of the composite. Keywords Aluminum matrix composite · Ferrotitanium · FeTi · Auto-material · Boron carbide · Powder metallurgy · Fractography · Hybridization 1 Introduction Global realities such as climate change, environmental sus- tainability, andmaterial innovation havemade the production of eco-efficient materials virtually unavoidable. Fuel con- sumption in automobiles can be reduced by improving the thermodynamic efficiency of the engine, but considerable improvements can also be by reducing the vehicle’s weight (Khademian and Peimaei 2020; Patel et al. 2018). Steels and cast iron are utilized in the automobile (Musfirah and Jaharah B Oluwafemi Timothy Oladosu otoladosu@gmail.com B Abayomi Adewale Akinwande abypublications@gmail.com 1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Redeemer’s University, Ede, Osun State, Nigeria 2 Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria 3 Department of Chemical, Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Botswana International University of Science and Technology, Palapye, Botswana 2012); however, when seeking for alternative materials, alu- minum alloys, magnesium alloys, and polymer composites are ideal for use in automotive applications (Han et al. 2022; Haber 2015; Joost and Krajewski 2017). When compared to other materials, aluminum and its alloys are seen as the preferable options due to their high strength, ductility, con- ductivity, and low cost (Akinwande et al. 2023a, b; Adediran et al. 2023; Dursun and Soutis 2014). In this context, the pro- portion of aluminum alloys in all materials used in the design of automobile component is steadily increasing, which has the positive impact of reducing the total mass of vehicles with the aim ofminimizing fuel consumption (Adediran et al. 2021; Sharma et al. 2020; Zheng et al. 2018; Orłowicz et al. 2015). Recent research events have involved the development of aluminum composites and hybrid aluminum composites to improve the mechanical, tribological, and corrosion per- formance of monolithic aluminum and its alloys. Various aluminum grades play a pivotal role in advancing compos- ite materials. A356 aluminum–silicon alloy, reinforced with granite and graphite particles, exhibits improved friction resistance (Satyanarayana et al. 2019). Al6061, combined 123 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s41939-023-00341-y&domain=pdf Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design with SiC and B4C powders through powder metallurgy, demonstrates optimized mechanical properties, with the highest hardness observed in 12%B4Creinforced composites (Halil et al. 2019). AA7075 alloy, used in pumice-reinforced aluminum syntactic foams, shows the impact of particle size, bimodality, and heat treatment onmechanical properties (Bolat et al. 2021). Sahu et al. (2020) explore the microstruc- ture and compressive behavior of 2014 aluminumcenosphere syntactic foam, emphasizing its high strength and unique deformation characteristics. These studies highlight the ver- satility of aluminum grades in tailoring composite material properties. Among a large group of aluminum alloys, aluminum–sil- icon alloy has gained high patronage for automobile designs due to its high casting potency, strength-to-weight ratio, low thermal expansion, and wear resistance. It has found applications in engine components of land automobiles (Akinwamide et al. 2020; Alshmri 2013). Due to the working conditions of automobile engines, efforts have been made to further improve the performance of aluminum–silicon alloys through particulate reinforcement of thematrix. Ceramic par- ticles are often used in the reinforcement of aluminum alloys, consequently improving strength performance, as realized in studies by Balogun et al. (2022), Kumar et al. (2023a, b), and Ogunsanya et al. (2022, 2023). In these studies, improvements were observed in the employed aluminum matrix owing to the intrinsic brittleness of ceramic rein- forcement. However, the incorporation of the reinforcement into the metal matrix has eventually led to a reduction in strength at a certain weight proportion (Olaniran et al. 2022a; Ogunbiyi et al. 2023). More so, the brittle nature of the par- ticles often limits ceramic-reinforced aluminum composites in hot–cold-cryo rolling and extrusion processes (Oloruny- olemi et al. 2022). The reports by Akinwande et al. (2023c) had shown the importance of engaging metal-based particles as a supplementary additive to ceramic reinforcement in an aluminum matrix. The concept of hybridization in aluminum composites involves combining different types of reinforcement parti- cles to fabricate hybrid materials with enhanced properties. This approach aims to capitalize on the unique advantages offered by various types of reinforcements, such as ceram- ics, to achieve a synergistic effect in terms of mechanical and tribological characteristics (Akinwamide et al. 2021). For instance, Chandel et al. (2021) underscores the signif- icance of incorporating both soft and hard reinforcement particles to reduce brittleness and enhance wear resistance. The use of ceramics like silicon carbide (SiC), graphite (Gr), aluminum nitride (AlN), alumina (Al2O3), and boron car- bide (B4C) are highlighted for their potential to significantly improve mechanical and wear characteristics. The inclusion of agro-waste derivatives further adds to the versatility of hybrid composites. Bolat et al. (2022) extends this concept to ceramic-filled aluminum syntactic foams, exploring the effects of reinforcement diameter on compressive features. The study demonstrates the stability of microstructures with uniform distribution, and artificial aging treatment is found to enhance mechanical properties. Ramadoss et al. (2020) contributes to this concept by synthesizing B4C and BN reinforced Al7075 hybrid composites, showing increased hardness and improved compressive properties. The research explores the interfacial reactions and homogeneous distri- bution of hybrid reinforcement particles in the base metal matrix. Recent studies have explored the use of boron carbide (B4C) as a filler in aluminum matrix composites (AMCs) based on its low density, cost-effectiveness, and compati- bility with aluminum base materials (Xu et al. 2019). Xu et al. (2019) investigated the impact of B4C particle size on the mechanical properties of aluminum matrix-layered composites, revealing that B4C enhanced impact strength and ultimate tensile strength while lowering composite hard- ness. Sharma et al. (2019) conducted a comprehensive review of B4C-reinforced AMCs, highlighting the forma- tion of precipitates in B4C-Al interfacial interactions that reduce age-hardening capacity. Increasing B4C percentage and decreasing size improved strength, hardness, and wear resistance up to a certain point, with wear rate influenced by applied weight, sliding duration, and speed. However, limi- tations such as poor wettability, embrittleness and porosity in AMCs with ceramic reinforcement led to the suggestion of metal-based additives as supplements (Das et al. 2014). In a stir casting approach, Mazahery et al. (2012) aimed to fabricate lightweight Al356 matrix composites with B4C particles, showing improved hardness and tensile strength. Strength significantly improved with 10% of B4C, but fur- ther increases led to reduced strength, possibly due to particle agglomeration and increased microporosity. The inclusion of a metal reinforcement, such as ferroti- tanium in this present study, in Al/Si/B4C composites is prompted by challenges associated with ceramic reinforce- ments like B4C as initially highlighted. To address these limitations, introducing a metal reinforcement offers advan- tages such as improved ductility, toughness, and enhanced compatibility with the aluminum matrix. Metal additives can mitigate the brittleness of ceramics and foster better interfacial interactions, potentially optimizing the overall mechanical performance of the composite for applications in dynamic and impact-loaded conditions (Olaniran et al. 2023). The major characteristics that make ferrotitanium an appealing material include an outstanding strength–weight ratio, which has led to ferrotitanium being widely used in the aerospace and petrochemical sectors. Yilmaz et al. (2022) conducted a metallographic analysis and studied the wear behavior of Cu-based FeTi-reinforced composites. Cu- based FeTi-reinforced metal matrix composites (MMCs) 123 Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design were manufactured by powder metallurgy with FeTi rein- forcement additions at 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18wt.%.The interface microstructure between FeTi and Cu at 1000 °C was found to be significantly different, and the hardness altered cor- respondingly with the increase of FeTi particles. A study on the microstructural and mechanical properties of stir-cast aluminum composite was carried out by Akinwamide et al. (2020),where SiC andFeTiwere incorporated into thematrix at varying dosages of 2 and 5 wt.% saw improvement in the mechanical properties. In the same vein, Akinwamide et al. (2019a, b) showed the role of ferrotitanium and sili- con carbide on the properties in enhancing the properties of aluminum matrix. Limitations attached to AMCs are sometimes attributed to the choice of preparation method (Mazahery and Ostad Shabani 2012). Popular methods of producing composites include powdermetallurgy and stir casting.However, powder metallurgy has been shown to yield better results com- pared to other processes like liquid metallurgy based on dimension accuracy, better surfacefinish, higher strength per- formance, and better durability (Parikh et al. 2023; Sankhla et al. 2022; Khan et al. 2020). Ferrotitanium has been estab- lished to have optimized mechanical properties for various engineering applications. However, studies involving the combination of FeTi and boron carbide in aluminum–silicon alloy are to the best of our knowledge, very rare. This study stands at the forefront of innovation by introducing ferroti- tanium as a supplementary reinforcement in Al-12Si/B4C composites using powder metallurgy route. The combina- tion of these elements (FeTi and B4C) aims to overcome the limitations associated with traditional ceramic reinforce- ments, providing a unique perspective on enhancing the mechanical properties of aluminum alloys. The original- ity of this work lies in its exploration of the synergistic effects of ferrotitanium alongside lightweight ceramic boron carbide, contributing to a nuanced understanding of the microstructural intricacies. The practical implications of this research extend to potential applications in lightweight automotive components, where improved strength and duc- tility are paramount. By addressing the challenges posed by ceramic reinforcements, this study offers a fresh perspective on composite materials, aligning with the global pursuit of eco-efficiency and high-performance solutions for various engineering applications. 2 Materials andmethod 2.1 Materials The matrix material used for this study is an aluminum–sil- icon alloy (Al-12Si) with a particle size range of 25–56 µm and a major percentage weight of 86.3% Al and 12.3% Si. The selection of the Al-12Si particle size in this study was chosen based on the research conducted by Sharma et al. (2022). The image of the scanning electron microscope and ele- mental composition are indicated in Fig. 1a , b. As received, reinforcing powders are boron carbide and ferrotitanium of average size 12 µm each. The morphology and elemental composition of the powders are shown in Fig. 1c–f. 2.2 Composites fabrication Powder metallurgy manufacturing process was employed to fabricate the composites. The as-receivedAl-12Si alloy pow- der and the as-received B4C and FeTi powder were mixed homogeneously using a planetary ball mill (ASEW-238). Al- 12Si powder was mixed with a constant 5 wt.% B4C and varying amounts of FeTi (3, 6, and 9 wt.%). The ball mill was operated continuously for 6 h at 100 rpm and 25 °C under argon atmospheric conditions. Toprevent plastic defor- mation and overheating of the particle mixes, steel spheres were not used during the mixing operation. A graphite ham- mer was employed to compress the composite particles for 20 min at a pressure of 45 MPa. The sintering was done in a vacuum microwave sintering furnace (HY-QS1516E) at a 500 °C constant temperature, 25 °C/min heating rate, and a 15-min holding time. The sintered specimens were cut into sections by an electric discharge machining procedure. For referencepurposes, the as-receivedAl-12Siwasblendedwith B4C and fabricated by subjecting the powder mix to the same fabrication procedure and tagged “reference composite (Al- 12Si/5B4C).” 2.3 Microstructural examination of the composites To facilitate comprehensivemicrostructural examination, the specimens underwent a meticulous metallographic prepara- tion process. For this process, the specimen were machined into dimension of 5 × 5 × 5 mm, followed by a system- atic polishing regimen involving emery sheets with varying grit sizes (400, 600, 800, 1000, and 1200) and subsequent disk polishing. This stepwise polishing procedure aimed to achieve a pristine surface, accentuating the contrast between the soft and hard matrix of the material. Subsequently, the specimens were mounted with epoxy, providing stability and facilitating handling during subsequent processing. Grinding and polishing ensued until a mirror-like surface was attained, ensuring optimal conditions for microstructural examina- tion. For chemical etching, Kroll’s solution, comprising 3 ml hydrofluoric acid (HF) and 5 ml nitric acid (HNO3), was applied to the polished surface for 30 s. Following the etching process, the specimens were thoroughly rinsed with distilled water and dried using a laboratory dryer for one minute. 123 Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design Fig. 1 Microstructure images of a aluminum silicon alloy b ferrotitanium c boron carbide and the chemical composition as analyzed by EDX for d aluminum silicon alloy e ferrotitanium f boron carbide Afterwards, microstructural analysis was done on the fab- ricated composites using a scanning electron microscope (JSM-7601F) equipped with an energy dispersive spectrom- eter attachment (EDS AZ-tec). The SEM was also used to capture the microstructure of the fractured surface of the fractured samples. While the phases present in the compos- ites were determined by an ADX8000 (ANGSTROM) X-ray diffractometer. This was done at 2° angles ranging from 0° to 90°, and the analysis was performed at 40 mA and 45 kV. Further analysiswas performed usingX’PertHighscore Plus. 2.4 Assessment of the physical properties The density of the prepared composites was calculated by the Archimedes’ principle, and the determination of the pro- duced composites weight was done with an accuracy of 0.0005 g on an AE200 gauging balance. 10 × 10 × 10 mm specimens were subjected to the test, and six specimens representing each composition were evaluated using this method. The calculation method (expressed in Eq. 1) was employed to determine the theoretical densities of the com- posites. Cd � [Dm × (1 − Vr )] + (R × Vr ), (1) where Cd stands for composite density and Dm is matrix density, even as R is the reinforcing powders density. In esti- mating the relative density (R), measured density (Dm) was divided by the theoretical density (Td) as showcased in Eq. 2. RD � Dm / Td. (2) Meanwhile, the porosity was estimated via Eq. 3, Porosity � (1 − R) × 100. (3) 2.5 Mechanical properties analysis In the assessment of the mechanical properties of the pro- duced composites, a tensile test was conducted in accordance with ASTM E 8 (ASTM E 8, 2022). A weight of 100 kN at a 123 Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design Fig. 2 XRD diffraction patterns for the Al-12Si/B4C/FeTi composite strain rate of 2 × 10–3/s was applied to the specimens mea- suring 120 mm in length with a gauge length of 30 mm and a 10 mm gauge diameter. A hardness test was performed using the ASTME384 (2022) standard, and a microhardness tester (MHT-1000 T) was employed to measure the Vickers hardness. 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Microstructural characterization 3.1.1 X-ray diffraction analysis of the composites Figure 2 shows the diffraction pattern and the evolution of the present phases in the developed composites. It was observed that the major peaks present in the reference composite (Al- 12Si/5B4C) were mostly alpha-aluminum, silicon, and B4C peaks attributed to the constituent phases inherent in the ref- erence composite (Al-12Si/5B4C). The inclusion of the FeTi particle at 3 wt.% triggered the existence of a secondary FeTi phase at 3% FeTi addition (Fig. 3b). These peaks were noted to increase in intensities at 6 and9wt.%FeTi addition (Fig. 3c and Fig. 3d). Furthermore, peaks of eutectic iron (Al3Fe) were identified upon inclusion of FeTi particles at 3, 6, and 9 wt.%. At 9% FeTi, a titanium silicide (Ti5Si3) phase was also observed. 3.1.2 Microstructural Analysis of the composites produced The SEM images of the produced composites are shown in Fig. 3a–d. White spots (labeled spot “1”) were identified in Fig. 3a. From the elemental results (Fig. 4d), it was deter- mined that these spots are mostly composed of boron and carbon, typical of boron carbide. This indicates that at 0% FeTi, the matrix primarily contained dispersed B4C parti- cles, along with the occurrence of pores alongside the B4C particles. In Fig. 3b–d, dark spots were also observed to be dispersed within the composite matrixes. Elemental analysis revealed that the dark spots labeled "spot 2" predominantly consisted of titanium and iron, characteristic of ferrotita- nium (FeTi) (Fig. 4a). Therefore, FeTi particleswere detected within the matrix at 3, 6, and 9% FeTi addition. Addition- ally, white threads along the grain boundary, labeled "3," were observed. Elemental composition analysis indicated that these white threads were predominantly composed of aluminum and iron (Fig. 4b), consistent with the elemental composition of eutectic iron (Al3Fe) in the aluminummatrix (Elsharkawi et al. 2022; Shakiba et al. 2014). The spots initially identified as 1, 2, and 3 were also found in Fig. 3d at 9% FeTi, accompanied by the presence of an intermetallic titanium silicide (Ti5Si3) phase, labeled as spot "4." The elemental composition analysis depicted in Fig. 4c confirmed the presence of the titanium silicide phase, aligning with findings by Pribytkov et al. (2022). All these characteristics support the identification of phases whose peakswere observed in theX-ray diffraction analysis (Fig. 2). 3.2 Physical properties analysis 3.2.1 Porosity Figure 5 illustrates the porosity of the composites with respect to the rise in FeTi proportion within the matrix. It was observed that the porosity value decreased as the weight percentage of FeTi increased. As compared with reference mix, 3%, 6%, and 9% dosage of FeTi experienced a percent- age decrease of 3.70, 6.79, and 8.64%, respectively (Fig. 5). 123 Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design Fig. 3 Microstructural features of the sintered composites a 0% FeTi b 3% FeTi c 6% FeTi d 9% FeTi Pores B4C FeTi B4C Al3Fe Al3Fe B4C FeTi FeTi B4C Al3Fe Ti5Si3 (a) (b) (c) (d) 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 100 μm 100 μm 100 μm 100 μm The porosity observed at 0% FeTi is linked to solidification shrinkage and gas segregation, as indicated by Dehgahi et al. (2020). With the inclusion of FeTi in increasing proportion, porosity begins to decrease. This can be attributed to the ability of FeTi particles to fill existing pores and voids, con- sistent with the findings of Akinwande et al. (2023a, b, c), and Olaniran et al. (2022a, b), who observed a progressive decline in porosity with increasing particle fillers. 3.2.2 Density and relative density examination The graph illustrating the density and relative density of the composites as a function of FeTi dosage in wt.% is shown in Fig. 6. The density of the matrix is 2.73 g/cc, while the density of B4C is 2.53 g/cm3, and the density of FeTi is 3.0 g/cm3. It was observed that the addition of FeTi led to a linear increase in the relative density and density of the composites. Introduction of 3, 6, and 9 wt% of FeTi into the reference composite increases its density by 2.2, 3.6, and 4.7%, respectively, and its relative density by 0.7, 1.1, and 1.4%, respectively. This is partly due to the fact that density of FeTi is higher than that of the matrix and B4C. As fur- ther observed, the relative density enhancement is a result of the porosity decrement as the dosage of FeTi increases in the composite. Furthermore, Olaniran et al. (2022a, b) revealed that the addition ofmolybdenum particles to the sin- tering process resulted in a rise in the density of aluminum alloy in a similar manner to that reported in this work. Shir- vanimoghaddam et al. (2015) also discovered that adding particles as fillers to an aluminum matrix enhanced the com- posite’s density. 3.3 Mechanical properties of the fabricated composites The mechanical characteristics of the produced compos- ites, such as their tensile strength, ultimate strength, yield strength, elongation, and hardness, are covered in this section. 3.3.1 Tensile performance Figure 7 shows the relationship between the tensile load and tensile strain of the composite materials. It was depicted that the yield strength of the composites increases as the percent- age weight of FeTi increases. Furthermore, it was observed that the ductility of the composites produced decreased with an increase in the proportion of FeTi reinforcement. More information about the ultimate strength, yield strength, elon- gation, and hardness is illustrated in Figs. 8 and 9. 123 Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design Fig. 4 Elemental composition as analyzed by EDX for the phases a FeTi b Al3Fe c Ti5Si3 d B4C present in the composite as revealed by XRD analysis Fig. 5 Porosity variation in the produced composites 3.3.2 Yield and ultimate strength As shown in Fig. 8, it was observed that the yield strength of the fabricated composites increased as the amount of FeTi increased at 3, 6, and 9 wt% by 11.8, 19.7, and 25%, respectively, as compared to the reference composite. The significant increase in the yield strength of the composites Fig. 6 Variation in density and relative density as function of FeTi % with the inclusion of FeTi is partly as a result of the particle dispersion within the matrix, which played a role in the pin- ning of dislocation during deformation (Zhang et al. 2022; Ananiadis et al. 2022). Equally, the Al3Fe appearing at the grain boundary con- tributed to the inhibition of dislocationmovement, eventually 123 Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design Fig. 7 Tensile stress–strain characteristics of the developed Al- 12%Si/5%B4C/FeTi composite Fig. 8 Graph showing the strength and elongation behavior of the pro- duced composites resulting in the improvement of the strength of the compos- ite (Dangwal et al. 2023; Javaid et al. 2021). Consequently, the higher the FeTi weight percentage, the higher the yield strength; this is evident in the composite, with 9 wt.% of FeTi exhibiting an improvement in yield strength of 25% relative to the reference composite. Similarly, for ultimate strength performance, a percentage rise in FeTi proportion led to an increase in ultimate strength. Again, in this case, compos- ites with a 9% percentage weight of FeTi possess the highest ultimate strength of 27.7%. Both the yield strength and the ultimate strength of the composites appreciated in value because of the dispersion of the reinforcing particles. This is clear from the SEM image (Fig. 3). The dispersion of particles within the matrix facilitated interaction between the matrix and reinforcement, leading to a homogeneous stress distribution. Additionally, the presence of these particles hindered dislocation move- ment in the matrix, resulting in more dislocations forming around the particles. This increase in dislocation density contributed to the enhancement of the composite’s strength. These findings align with a study by Yigezy et al. (2013), Fig. 9 Hardness performance of the produced composites which also observed improved strength performance in alu- minumcomposites upon the inclusionof reinforcingparticles in increasing proportions. 3.3.3 Elongation Figure 8 depicts a linear decrement in elongation as the amount of FeTi increases in the aluminum alloy/B4C com- posites. This is so based on the improvement of the stiffness of the composites resulting from the inclusion of the rein- forcing phase. This result further affirmed the outcome of Wu et al. 2022, in which the progressive presence of TiB2 at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5% in aluminum A356 within the matrix. Sim- ilarly, the results reported in this study regarding elongation corroborate the findings of Rajesh et al. (2023), and Raksha et al. (2023). 3.3.4 Hardness Figure 9 presents the hardness plot of the composites pro- duced. It was observed that the hardness increased with the rise in FeTi dosage, which could be attributed to the inher- ent hardness property of FeTi, as reported by Chu et al. (2020). The SEM image in Fig. 3 revealed finer grains and greater particle cohesiveness, which might also contribute to the increased hardness, as noted in studies by Kumar et al. (2023a, b, c) and Huan et al. (2022). These findings are consistent with the work of Yilmaz et al. (2022), who reported enhanced hardness in Cu matrix reinforced with varying proportions of FeTi (6, 9, 12, 15, and 18%). Sim- ilarly, Ravichandran et al. (2021) demonstrated improved hardness in aluminum alloy (AA7075) when infused with molybdenum disulfide and aluminum nitride in increasing proportions. The hardness value was found to be highest 123 Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design Fig. 10 Tensile fractography of the developed composites at a 0% FeTi b 3% FeTi c 6% FeTi d 9% FeTi (a) (b) (c) (d) 50 μm 50 μm 50 μm 50 μm Fine Dimple Fine Dimple Coarse Dimple Coarse Dimple Deep crack when 9% FeTi was incorporated, attributable to the mech- anisms discussed earlier and the presence of the hard Ti5Si3 phase (Fig. 3d). 3.4 Tensile fractographic examination The micrograph in Fig. 10 shows the tensile fractography of Al-12%Si/5%B4C/FeTi composites. The tensile fractogra- phy of reference at 0 wt.% FeTi is shown in Fig. 10a, and the most noticeable features are fine dimples associated with rel- atively ductile fracture. According to Fig. 10b–d, the reduced ductility of the materials with a rising percentage of FeTi led to a reduction in the fine dimple fracture of the composites. The fractography also reveals a smooth fracture surface with worn tracks and tear ridges. Maleque et al. (2017) claimed that fracture in compositematerials occurs as a result of crack initiation that occurs immediately at the boundary between the aluminum alloy and reinforcement. The ductile properties are demonstrated by thewear tracks and tear ridges visible on the fracture surface.Additionally, as shown in Fig. 10b, c, FeTi and B4C particles could be visible on the surface of the shattered specimen, providing proof of appropriate bonding between the reinforcements and matrix. The proper settling of FeTi particles with the grain of the aluminum-boron carbide matrix, which led to a reduction in shear deformation in the tensile direction,may be responsible for the decrease in dimples generated on the surface of the sample with the highest reinforcement. The FeTi particles and the coarse intermetallic that formed in the composites may be the cause of the cracks shown in Fig. 10d. 4 Conclusion In summary, the outcomesof this studyoffer valuable insights into the mechanical enhancement of Al-12% Si through the incorporation of FeTi particles. The observed phases, includ- ing B4C, FeTi, AlFe3, and the identification of intermetallic Ti5Fe3 at 9% FeTi, contribute to our understanding of the composite’s microstructure. SEM micrographs confirm the effective dispersion of B4C and FeTi within the composites. A noticeable decrease in porosity, coupled with a signifi- cant increase in density and relative density, demonstrates the positive impact of FeTi on the physical properties of the composites. Furthermore, the systematic improvement in yield strength, ultimate strength, and hardness with increas- ing FeTi content highlights the effectiveness of FeTi as a reinforcing agent. However, the linear reduction in elonga- tion suggests a trade-off between strength and ductility. The 123 Multiscale and Multidisciplinary Modeling, Experiments and Design fractographic analysis reveals a transition from fine dimples to coarser dimples, indicating the evolving fracture behav- ior with higher FeTi dosage. While these findings contribute to the understanding of hybridized Al-12% Si composites, further researchmaybewarranted to explore specific applica- tions and optimize the balance between strength and ductility. Author contributions OTO and AAA contributed to conceptualization, data curation, methodology, literature review manuscript drafting, and editing; OSA andOOSwere involved in data curation,methodology, lit- erature review,manuscript drafting, and editing;BAOperformedproject management and administration, and supervision. Funding The work received no funding from any organization. Data availability Data shall bemade available by the authors on request. Declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interest that may affect the publication and readability of the paper. References Adediran AA, Akinwande AA, Balogun OA, Adesina OS, Olayanju A, Mojisola T (2021) Evaluation of the properties of Al-6061 alloy reinforced with particulate waste glass. 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Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law. 123 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.11.086 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11041-022-00807-9 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.12.181 https://doi.org/10.3389/fmats.2022.817376 https://doi.org/10.1515/secm-2018-0072 https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/2381425 https://doi.org/10.1142/s0218625x22500433 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2022.144003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlmm.2018.03.006 Hybridization of aluminum–silicon alloy with boron carbide and ferrotitanium: impact on mechanical properties for automotive applications Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Materials and method 2.1 Materials 2.2 Composites fabrication 2.3 Microstructural examination of the composites 2.4 Assessment of the physical properties 2.5 Mechanical properties analysis 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Microstructural characterization 3.1.1 X-ray diffraction analysis of the composites 3.1.2 Microstructural Analysis of the composites produced 3.2 Physical properties analysis 3.2.1 Porosity 3.2.2 Density and relative density examination 3.3 Mechanical properties of the fabricated composites 3.3.1 Tensile performance 3.3.2 Yield and ultimate strength 3.3.3 Elongation 3.3.4 Hardness 3.4 Tensile fractographic examination 4 Conclusion References